The phrase signifies the rendition of a Latin sequence, traditionally attributed to Thomas of Celano, which describes the Day of Judgment. A version’s accuracy hinges upon conveying not only the literal meaning of the words but also the intended tone and emotional weight of the original text. One specific instance is rendering the vivid imagery of divine wrath and the impending apocalypse across different languages and cultural contexts.
Accurate conveyance of the original sequence’s meaning is important for understanding its historical and cultural impact. This is valuable in musicology, religious studies, and literature, where it often appears as a motif representing death, mourning, or impending doom. Understanding different versions highlights interpretive choices made over time and reveals evolving cultural perceptions of mortality and judgment.
Subsequent sections will delve into specific challenges encountered during these undertakings, examining variations in interpretive approaches and their impact on appreciating the sequence’s enduring significance. This exploration extends to analyzing notable musical settings influenced by the original text, showcasing its pervasive influence across artistic disciplines.
1. Semantic Equivalence
Semantic equivalence represents a cornerstone in rendering the Dies Irae. It necessitates that the target language version not only captures the literal meaning of each word and phrase but also their nuanced implications within the original Latin context. This concept extends beyond dictionary definitions, requiring deep understanding of the theological, historical, and cultural backdrop against which the sequence was composed.
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Lexical Precision
Lexical precision dictates that individual words are translated with the most fitting equivalent in the target language, considering connotations and denotations. For example, the term “solvet saeclum in favilla” requires careful selection of words to convey the concepts of dissolution, the world’s end, and reduction to ashes. A less precise rendition would diminish the intended sense of cataclysmic destruction.
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Phrasal Integrity
Phrasal integrity ensures that entire phrases, not just individual words, retain their original significance. Idiomatic expressions or figures of speech within the Dies Irae must be carefully adapted to convey similar meaning and impact in the target language. Attempting a purely literal transfer may result in awkward or incomprehensible phrases that fail to evoke the intended emotional response.
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Contextual Consistency
Contextual consistency maintains the coherence of the translated text with the overall theme and tone of the sequence. Each line should contribute to the overarching narrative of divine judgment and the fear of eternal damnation. A mistranslation that introduces a conflicting idea or sentiment can disrupt the flow and weaken the sequence’s emotional power.
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Theological Accuracy
Theological accuracy guarantees that references to Christian theology and eschatology are correctly represented in the target language version. Concepts such as divine justice, purgatory, and the final resurrection must be rendered in a manner consistent with established theological understanding. Inaccurate or misleading translations could distort the sequence’s religious meaning and undermine its spiritual impact.
Achieving semantic equivalence in the rendering of Dies Irae involves a multifaceted approach that combines linguistic expertise, cultural sensitivity, and theological knowledge. Failure to adequately address these components can significantly compromise the accuracy and effectiveness of the translation, diminishing its ability to convey the sequence’s powerful message to a contemporary audience.
2. Rhythmic Integrity
Rhythmic integrity constitutes a critical facet in rendering the Dies Irae. It goes beyond mere semantic accuracy, emphasizing the preservation of the original Latin sequence’s rhythmic structure in its translated iterations. This aspect is paramount, particularly given the text’s inherent musicality and its frequent adaptation within choral and orchestral compositions.
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Syllabic Stress and Meter
The original Dies Irae exhibits a distinct syllabic stress pattern and meter. An effective rendering seeks to replicate this rhythmic foundation in the target language. This involves careful selection of words and phrasing to mirror the accented and unaccented syllables of the Latin text. Failure to maintain this pattern can disrupt the flow and cadence of the translated version, making it less amenable to musical settings that adhere to the original rhythmic structure. For instance, a line with predominantly dactylic meter in Latin should ideally be mirrored with a similar pattern in the translated text, if the target language’s phonetic structure allows.
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Line Length and Cadence
The length of each line and the cadence at its conclusion contribute significantly to the overall rhythmic feel of the Dies Irae. A faithful rendering attempts to match the number of syllables per line and the placement of pauses or breaks, mirroring the original’s rhythmic phrasing. Altering line length or disrupting the cadence can affect the sequence’s impact on both the spoken word and when set to music. The translator must consider how these elements interact to create a sense of urgency, solemnity, or foreboding inherent in the source text.
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Sound and Alliteration
The original’s rhythmic impact also depends on sounds such as alliteration and assonance. Translators should attempt to replicate the sounds. For example, repeating sounds can create a sense of either harmony or disharmony, depending on the context. An instance of alliterative phrases in Latin may be rendered in the target language with similar phonetic structures to maintain the aural texture of the original.
Preserving rhythmic integrity is not merely an aesthetic concern; it is integral to maintaining the Dies Irae‘s power as a liturgical text and a source of musical inspiration. Translations that neglect the rhythmic dimension risk losing a crucial aspect of the sequence’s original intent and impact. The translator is tasked with the difficult task of maintaining not only meaning, but also musical cadence of the sequence.
3. Cultural Resonance
Cultural resonance, in the context of conveying the Dies Irae, signifies the extent to which a translated version resonates with the target audience’s values, beliefs, and understanding of mortality, judgment, and the divine. Achieving resonance necessitates going beyond literal accuracy, tailoring the version to evoke emotions and associations comparable to those experienced by the original audience.
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Adaptation of Imagery
Imagery within the Dies Irae, such as fire, wrath, and judgment, may require adaptation to resonate with different cultures. Symbols with strong negative connotations in one culture may be neutral or even positive in another. Effective translation involves finding equivalent symbols or adjusting existing ones to evoke similar feelings of fear, awe, or repentance. For example, depictions of hell or divine retribution may need to be modified to align with specific cultural conceptions of the afterlife.
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Contextualization of Religious Concepts
Religious concepts embedded within the Dies Irae, such as divine justice and the final resurrection, require careful contextualization. The translator must ensure that these concepts are presented in a manner consistent with the target audience’s theological understanding. This may involve providing additional explanations or adapting the language to avoid misunderstandings or misinterpretations. Differences in religious traditions can necessitate nuanced renderings to maintain the integrity of the original message while remaining accessible and meaningful.
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Emotional Equivalence
The Dies Irae is intended to evoke a range of powerful emotions, including fear, sorrow, and hope. Achieving emotional equivalence in a translated version involves carefully selecting words and phrases that elicit similar emotional responses in the target audience. This may require considering the cultural norms surrounding the expression of emotions and adapting the language accordingly. A translation that fails to evoke the intended emotions will likely fall flat, failing to convey the sequence’s profound spiritual significance.
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Musical and Artistic Interpretation
The reception of a translated version is intrinsically linked to its musical and artistic interpretation. Performers and artists may bring their own cultural perspectives and sensibilities to the translated text, further shaping its resonance with the target audience. Translators should be mindful of how their version may be interpreted and adapted in different artistic contexts, ensuring that it remains faithful to the original intent while allowing for creative expression. The collaborative interplay between translation, music, and art can significantly enhance the cultural resonance of the Dies Irae.
Ultimately, successfully rendering Dies Irae depends on achieving cultural resonance. Only by carefully considering the target audience’s values, beliefs, and cultural context can a translation effectively convey the sequence’s profound message of mortality, judgment, and the hope for redemption. Achieving such resonance requires expertise, sensitivity, and a deep understanding of both the source and target cultures.
4. Liturgical Context
The liturgical context surrounding the Dies Irae fundamentally shapes its translation. The sequence originated as a component of the Requiem Mass, specifically intended for liturgical performance within the Catholic Church. This context dictates the purpose, tone, and interpretive framework for any successful rendition.
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Intended Use and Performance
The Dies Irae was crafted for solemn occasions, primarily funerals and commemorations of the deceased. The translation must therefore accommodate performance within a liturgical setting, considering factors such as the length of verses, the suitability for chanting or singing, and the compatibility with liturgical actions. Versions intended for concert performance may deviate more freely, whereas those intended for liturgical use must adhere to established norms.
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Theological Consistency
As an integral part of the Requiem Mass, the sequence expresses specific theological beliefs regarding death, judgment, and the afterlife. Translations must maintain theological consistency with Catholic doctrine, avoiding interpretations that contradict established teachings. For instance, references to purgatory, divine judgment, and the hope for salvation must be rendered accurately and in accordance with orthodox theological understanding.
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Rubrical Compliance
Historically, liturgical performances are governed by rubrics, which are directives specifying how prayers and ceremonies should be conducted. While the use of the Dies Irae in the Requiem Mass has been curtailed since the Second Vatican Council, translations intended for traditional liturgical use must still consider historical rubrical guidelines. These guidelines dictate elements such as the number of verses sung, the manner of performance (e.g., sung by the choir or recited by the celebrant), and the overall solemnity of the occasion.
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Reception and Interpretation by the Faithful
Translations used within a liturgical setting are received and interpreted by the faithful, who bring their own beliefs, experiences, and expectations to the event. The translator must consider how the translated text will be understood and received by the congregation, aiming to create a meaningful and spiritually enriching experience. Versions that are overly literal or that fail to capture the emotional and spiritual depth of the original Latin may fail to resonate with the faithful, undermining the liturgical purpose of the sequence.
The liturgical context provides a critical framework for understanding and interpreting the Dies Irae. Translations that ignore this context risk misrepresenting the sequence’s purpose and significance, diminishing its effectiveness as a component of the Requiem Mass and its ability to convey the profound themes of mortality and divine judgment.
5. Poetic devices
The translation of Dies Irae fundamentally hinges on the successful transfer of its rich tapestry of poetic devices. The sequence, far from being a simple declaration of judgment, employs techniques such as alliteration, assonance, metaphor, and rhetorical questions to amplify its emotional impact and enhance its memorability. The effective conveyance of these devices into the target language is not merely ornamental; it is essential for replicating the original’s intended effect on the audience. For instance, the repetition of sounds in Latin, like the alliteration in “solvet saeclum in favilla,” contributes to the feeling of impending doom. A translation that ignores this device risks losing a significant layer of meaning and emotional resonance. The absence of similar phonetic techniques in the target language can render the translation flat and uninspired, failing to capture the evocative nature of the original.
Further complicating the matter is the cultural specificity inherent in certain poetic devices. Metaphors and similes, for example, draw upon shared cultural experiences and understandings. A direct translation of these figures of speech may not resonate with an audience unfamiliar with the source culture. Instead, the translator must find culturally appropriate equivalents that convey a similar meaning and emotional weight. The use of rhetorical questions in the Dies Irae serves to challenge the listener, prompting introspection and a sense of personal accountability. A poor translation may render these questions as mere statements, diminishing their intended effect. The practical application of this understanding is evident in the varying quality of available translations. Those that meticulously consider and replicate the poetic devices are invariably more compelling and impactful than those that prioritize literal accuracy at the expense of artistic expression.
In conclusion, the translation of Dies Irae presents a formidable challenge, demanding not only linguistic skill but also a deep appreciation for the role of poetic devices in shaping meaning and emotional impact. The success of any translation hinges on the ability to effectively transfer these devices into the target language, adapting them where necessary to resonate with the intended audience. Failure to do so results in a diminished and ultimately unsatisfying version of the original, lacking the power to evoke the intended sense of awe, fear, and ultimately, hope. Further study of existing translations and their reception can provide valuable insights into the practical application of these principles, highlighting the enduring importance of poetic sensitivity in the art of translation.
6. Musical setting
Musical setting profoundly influences the reception and interpretation of any rendition. The inherent qualities of a translated version interact dynamically with the chosen musical style, instrumentation, and vocal arrangements. This interplay determines the overall impact and effectiveness of the work, and influences how closely the translation reflects the original’s emotional and thematic intentions.
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Adaptation to Vocal Range and Timbre
The translated text must be amenable to the vocal ranges and timbres of the performers. A translation that is too high or too low for the intended voices, or one that contains awkward phonetic combinations, can hinder the performance and obscure the meaning. The rhythmic and melodic contours of the music must also complement the natural rhythms and stresses of the translated text, creating a cohesive and expressive whole. For example, a translation emphasizing harsh consonants may suit a dramatic, forceful setting, while a version employing softer vowels might be better suited to a more lyrical and contemplative arrangement. Considerations extend to the selection of soloists, choir, or a combination thereof, each configuration impacting the clarity and emotional delivery of the text.
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Influence of Orchestration and Instrumentation
The choice of instruments and their arrangement significantly shape the emotional landscape of the setting. A translation intended for performance with a full orchestra will likely require different stylistic choices than one designed for a smaller ensemble or a cappella performance. The use of specific instruments, such as trumpets, drums, or strings, can reinforce particular themes or emotions within the text. A setting that uses dissonant harmonies and jarring rhythms can amplify the sense of fear and dread, while one that employs consonant harmonies and flowing melodies can evoke feelings of hope and redemption. Similarly, the selection of key and mode can subtly influence the listener’s emotional response to the translation.
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Impact on Rhythmic Interpretation
The musical setting directly determines the rhythmic interpretation of a translation. The composer’s choice of tempo, meter, and rhythmic patterns can either enhance or distort the natural rhythms of the translated text. A setting that adheres closely to the inherent rhythms of the language will generally be more intelligible and expressive, while one that imposes an arbitrary rhythmic structure can obscure the meaning and detract from the overall impact. For example, a translation containing complex grammatical structures may require a slower tempo and clearer articulation to ensure that the text is understood. The interplay between the translation’s inherent rhythmic properties and the composer’s interpretation can greatly affect the audience’s comprehension.
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Integration with Musical Motifs and Themes
Effective musical settings often integrate recurring motifs and themes that reinforce key ideas and emotions within the translated text. These motifs can be melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic in nature, and they can be used to create a sense of unity and coherence throughout the piece. The composer may also choose to associate specific musical elements with particular characters or events within the narrative. For example, a descending melodic line might be used to represent death or despair, while an ascending line might symbolize hope or redemption. These musical devices can greatly enhance the expressive power of the translated text, allowing the composer to communicate complex ideas and emotions in a subtle and nuanced way.
The act of setting a version to music transforms it. The translation becomes a vehicle for musical expression, and the music, in turn, illuminates and amplifies the meaning of the text. The success of this symbiotic relationship depends on the translator’s sensitivity to the inherent musicality of the language and the composer’s ability to create a setting that is both expressive and faithful to the original intent.
7. Historical Accuracy
Historical accuracy constitutes a critical dimension in rendering the Dies Irae. The sequence arose within a specific historical and cultural milieu, and its meaning is inextricably linked to the context of its creation and subsequent usage. Accurate conveyance of the historical context is not merely a matter of academic precision but a fundamental requirement for understanding and appreciating the work’s enduring significance.
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Textual Authenticity and Sourcing
Establishing the authenticity and provenance of the original Latin text is paramount. Variations exist across different manuscripts and printed editions, necessitating careful collation and critical analysis to determine the most accurate and authoritative source text. The selection of a particular source text directly influences the translation, as even minor variations can alter the meaning and nuance of individual phrases. Understanding the history of the text’s transmission helps inform choices about which readings to prioritize. For example, if a particular phrase is known to be a later addition, a translator might choose to emphasize the original, earlier form. The translator also needs to be aware of the source in question: is it a copy, an original manuscript, or another historical item?
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Understanding the Liturgical Usage
The Dies Irae was originally a component of the Requiem Mass. Translations must consider how the sequence functioned within this liturgical context. This includes understanding when and where it was performed, the specific theological themes it was intended to convey, and the rubrics governing its performance. Knowledge of liturgical history informs translation choices by ensuring that the translated text remains consistent with the sequence’s intended purpose. For example, a phrase describing divine judgment must be rendered in a way that aligns with the Catholic Church’s understanding of judgment at the time of the sequence’s composition.
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Biographical and Cultural Context of Authorship
While the precise authorship of the Dies Irae remains debated, understanding the biographical and cultural context of possible authors, such as Thomas of Celano, can shed light on the sequence’s meaning. Exploring the lives and works of potential authors can provide insights into their theological perspectives, artistic sensibilities, and the historical events that may have influenced their writing. This context can inform translation choices by providing a deeper understanding of the author’s intended message. For instance, if the author was known to be deeply influenced by a particular theological school of thought, the translator might choose to emphasize aspects of the text that align with that school.
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Evolution of Interpretation Over Time
The Dies Irae has been interpreted and reinterpreted throughout history. Translations must acknowledge this evolving reception, recognizing that different historical periods and cultural contexts have brought different understandings to the text. Awareness of this historical reception can inform translation choices by highlighting the range of possible interpretations and the potential for different meanings to emerge over time. For example, a phrase that was once understood literally may now be interpreted metaphorically. The translator must be aware of these shifts in interpretation and make informed decisions about how to render the text for a contemporary audience. This includes understanding how its musical setting has changed over the centuries.
These elements underscore the vital link between historical accuracy and effective translation. A translation lacking in historical grounding risks misrepresenting the Dies Irae‘s meaning, diminishing its power and relevance for contemporary audiences. Accurately conveying the sequence requires a dedication to historical research, contextual understanding, and a nuanced appreciation for the complex interplay between text, history, and culture. Historical sources are essential to its rendition.
8. Emotional Intensity
The successful rendition of the Dies Irae is contingent upon accurately conveying its emotional intensity. The sequence is not merely a description of the Day of Judgment, but a carefully crafted evocation of fear, sorrow, supplication, and ultimately, hope. Failure to replicate this emotional spectrum in translation diminishes the work’s power and undermines its intended effect on the listener or reader. The emotional intensity is caused by its descriptions of doom, which should be conveyed accurately in a new translation. The absence of appropriate emotional intensity is akin to presenting a muted, lifeless version of a vibrant and impactful original. For example, a literal rendering of the phrase “Tuba mirum spargens sonum” (“The trumpet scattering its wondrous sound”) that omits the sense of awe and terror associated with divine judgment would fail to capture the emotional core of the verse. The translator must imbue the words with a feeling corresponding with the author’s intent.
The importance of emotional intensity stems from the sequence’s function as a prayer for the dead and a meditation on mortality. The intended purpose is to stir feelings of remorse, humility, and a desire for divine mercy. Translations that prioritize literal accuracy at the expense of emotional resonance risk losing this crucial dimension. Consider, for example, versions that accurately convey the literal meaning of “Lacrimosa dies illa” (“That day of weeping”) but fail to evoke a sense of profound sorrow and lamentation. Such versions may be technically correct but emotionally hollow, failing to connect with the audience on a deeper level. The sequence inspires great remorse and introspection, and should remain true in the translation.
Maintaining the emotional intensity of Dies Irae in translation presents a significant challenge. It requires not only linguistic skill but also a deep understanding of human psychology and cultural nuances. Translators must consider how different words and phrases evoke emotions in different cultures, and adapt their versions accordingly. Ultimately, the success of a rendition is judged by its ability to elicit the same emotional responses in its audience as the original Latin sequence. The rendering will prove most valuable by conveying its original intent. The emotional connection, the original intensity, is an important component to a great translation. The end result should lead to the appropriate response from the viewer/reader.
9. Thematic preservation
Thematic preservation is a crucial component within the act of providing a rendition. The sequence’s central themesdivine judgment, human mortality, and the plea for redemptionmust be maintained with fidelity. A version that inadvertently shifts or obscures these core elements fails to convey the original’s intended meaning and spiritual impact. Cause and effect are directly linked; a compromised translation leads to a diminished understanding of the sequence’s purpose. For example, downplaying the theme of divine wrath in an attempt to make the text more palatable to modern sensibilities risks obscuring the very source of the penitent’s plea for mercy. The thematic preservation is essential and provides the author’s initial intent.
Practical significance lies in the version’s ability to resonate with audiences across different eras and cultural contexts. Instances exist where translations, while technically accurate in their word-for-word rendering, fail to capture the overarching themes. For instance, a version focusing solely on the terror of judgment, neglecting the concurrent theme of hope for salvation, presents an incomplete and potentially misleading picture of the sequence’s spiritual message. Understanding the interwoven nature of these themes allows translators to make informed choices, ensuring that the final result maintains thematic balance. In musical adaptations, thematic preservation impacts composers’ interpretations and arrangements. Composers require an accurate rendition to build their themes around.
In summary, thematic preservation is not merely a desirable attribute but a foundational requirement for any successful rendition of Dies Irae. Translators must adopt a holistic approach, prioritizing not only the accurate conveyance of individual words and phrases but also the retention of the sequence’s core themes and their intricate interrelationships. Maintaining this balance is an ongoing challenge, demanding both linguistic expertise and a deep appreciation for the sequence’s historical, cultural, and theological context. The goal of a great translation is to preserve the author’s initial intent.
Frequently Asked Questions about Dies Irae Renderings
The following addresses common inquiries regarding the process of converting this Latin sequence across languages.
Question 1: What are the primary challenges encountered in rendering this sequence?
Significant challenges include achieving semantic equivalence, maintaining rhythmic integrity, ensuring cultural resonance, respecting the liturgical context, and preserving its poetic devices, all while upholding the emotional intensity inherent in the original Latin.
Question 2: Why is cultural adaptation necessary in these renderings?
Cultural adaptation is essential to ensure that the translated version resonates with the target audience’s values, beliefs, and understanding of mortality, judgment, and the divine. Direct translations may fail to evoke the intended emotional and spiritual impact.
Question 3: How does musical setting affect the interpretation of a translated version?
Musical setting profoundly influences the reception and interpretation. The version’s qualities dynamically interact with the musical style, instrumentation, and vocal arrangements, thereby determining the overall impact and effectiveness of the work.
Question 4: Why is historical accuracy important?
Historical accuracy is critical because the sequence’s meaning is inextricably linked to the context of its creation and subsequent usage. Accurate conveyance of the historical context is fundamental for understanding and appreciating the work’s enduring significance.
Question 5: What is the significance of preserving the emotional intensity?
Preserving emotional intensity is vital because the sequence seeks to evoke fear, sorrow, supplication, and hope. Failure to replicate this emotional spectrum diminishes the work’s power and undermines its intended effect.
Question 6: How does thematic preservation contribute to the accuracy of the rendition?
Thematic preservation ensures that the central themes of divine judgment, human mortality, and the plea for redemption are maintained with fidelity. A version that shifts or obscures these core elements fails to convey the original’s intended meaning.
In summary, successfully rendering requires a multifaceted approach that balances linguistic accuracy, cultural sensitivity, and artistic interpretation.
The subsequent article sections will further explore specific examples and case studies illustrating these principles.
Guidance for Rendering Dies Irae
The creation of an effective version necessitates careful attention to several key aspects. The following recommendations aim to assist practitioners in navigating challenges inherent in this task.
Tip 1: Prioritize Semantic Precision. Ensure the transferred meaning reflects nuanced implications within its original Latin context. Lexical choices must align with both denotations and connotations. Consider key phrases, and their theological context.
Tip 2: Maintain Rhythmic Fidelity. The rhythmic structure, syllabic stress, and cadence significantly contribute to its musicality. The text should mirror these qualities in the target language to ensure suitability for musical settings.
Tip 3: Cultivate Cultural Resonance. Adapt imagery and contextualize religious concepts to align with the target audience’s values and beliefs. Aim to evoke emotions comparable to those experienced by the original audience.
Tip 4: Respect Liturgical Context. The version should consider its use in liturgical settings and performance traditions. Ensure theological consistency and adherence to established rubrics where appropriate.
Tip 5: Preserve Poetic Devices. Effectively transfer poetic devices such as alliteration, assonance, metaphor, and rhetorical questions. These are essential for replicating the original’s emotional impact and memorability.
Tip 6: Account for Musical Setting. Recognize the dynamic interaction between the rendition and its musical setting. Adapt the text to accommodate vocal ranges, timbres, and the overall orchestration of the music.
Tip 7: Uphold Historical Accuracy. Establish textual authenticity, understand the liturgical usage, and consider the biographical context of authorship. The goal is to avoid misrepresenting the text’s meaning and significance.
Tip 8: Convey Emotional Intensity. Capture the spectrum of emotions, including fear, sorrow, supplication, and hope. These feelings are crucial for fully delivering the intended effect.
Adhering to these guidelines helps to achieve a rendition that is both faithful to the original Latin sequence and impactful for contemporary audiences. A carefully executed conversion ensures that its themes of mortality, judgment, and redemption continue to resonate across diverse cultural contexts.
The subsequent section offers further analysis and contextual examples to illustrate the application of these principles, providing a more granular perspective on this multifaceted task.
Conclusion
The foregoing exploration has illuminated the intricate process required for skillful rendition. From maintaining semantic precision to preserving the thematic integrity and emotional intensity inherent within the Latin text, effective versions demand a comprehensive understanding of linguistic, cultural, and historical contexts. The challenges detailed within this examination highlight the artistic and scholarly demands of conveying the sequence’s profound message across linguistic barriers.
Continued study and refinement of rendition techniques are essential for ensuring that translation of dies irae maintains its capacity to resonate with contemporary audiences. The rigorous application of the guidelines outlined herein serves not only to preserve the sequence’s artistic merit but also to facilitate a deeper appreciation of its enduring spiritual and cultural significance. Future scholarship should prioritize comparative analyses of existing versions, seeking to further refine best practices in this exacting endeavor.
