This is an urban planning and design movement that emerged in the late 20th century, advocating for walkable, mixed-use neighborhoods with a variety of housing options. It emphasizes creating communities that are compact, pedestrian-friendly, and transit-oriented. An example would be a town designed with houses close to shops, schools, and public transportation, encouraging residents to walk or bike for daily errands rather than rely solely on automobiles.
The movement’s significance lies in its potential to address urban sprawl, reduce reliance on cars, and foster a greater sense of community. It promotes environmental sustainability through decreased vehicle emissions and increased green spaces. Historically, it represents a reaction against post-World War II suburban development patterns that prioritized automobile travel and segregated land uses.
Understanding the key principles such as mixed-use development, walkability, and diverse housing options is crucial for analyzing contemporary urban landscapes. Furthermore, the movement’s impact on social equity and environmental concerns are important facets to consider.
1. Walkable Neighborhoods
Walkable neighborhoods are a cornerstone of contemporary urban planning, integral to the principles of smart growth and the movement towards creating sustainable, community-focused environments. This focus directly addresses the challenges of urban sprawl and car-dependency prevalent in many modern cities.
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Reduced Car Dependence
The design of walkable neighborhoods prioritizes pedestrian access to essential services and amenities. This reduces the need for private vehicles, resulting in lower traffic congestion and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, neighborhoods featuring grocery stores, schools, and parks within a short walking distance encourage residents to choose walking or biking over driving, fostering a healthier lifestyle and lowering environmental impact.
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Enhanced Social Interaction
Pedestrian-oriented environments facilitate social interaction and community cohesion. When residents are able to walk to local shops or community centers, it increases opportunities for chance encounters and spontaneous interactions. The design of such spaces often includes sidewalks, plazas, and public parks that encourage people to spend time outdoors and engage with their neighbors, fostering a stronger sense of community.
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Improved Public Health
Walkable neighborhoods promote physical activity and contribute to improved public health outcomes. Regular walking can help reduce the risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, and other health problems associated with sedentary lifestyles. Moreover, access to green spaces and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure encourages people to incorporate physical activity into their daily routines, improving overall well-being.
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Economic Benefits for Local Businesses
Walkable neighborhoods often support vibrant local economies. Increased foot traffic benefits small businesses and retail establishments by attracting more customers and fostering a sense of place. Pedestrian-friendly environments encourage people to linger and explore local shops, restaurants, and other businesses, contributing to their economic vitality and fostering a diverse local economy.
The design and implementation of these neighborhoods are fundamentally intertwined with the goals of creating more sustainable, equitable, and community-oriented urban environments. By prioritizing pedestrian access and promoting mixed-use development, these neighborhoods offer a viable alternative to car-dependent suburban sprawl. The positive impacts on the environment, public health, social cohesion, and local economies underscore its importance in shaping the future of urban planning.
2. Mixed-use development
Mixed-use development is a central tenet, integrating residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, or industrial uses within the same physical space, whether a single building, block, or neighborhood. This integration is a direct response to the segregated zoning practices common in post-World War II suburban development, which often resulted in car-dependent communities and the erosion of traditional urban centers.
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Reduced Transportation Demand
By locating housing, employment, retail, and recreational opportunities in close proximity, mixed-use developments decrease the need for private vehicle use. For example, a building containing apartments above retail shops allows residents to live, work, and shop without driving. This reduction in vehicle miles traveled contributes to lower greenhouse gas emissions, reduced traffic congestion, and improved air quality. Furthermore, it supports walking and cycling as viable transportation alternatives, promoting healthier lifestyles.
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Enhanced Social Interaction and Community Vitality
Mixed-use environments foster a greater sense of community by creating diverse and active public spaces. The combination of residential, commercial, and civic uses generates activity throughout the day and evening, creating a vibrant and safe environment. Coffee shops, parks, and community centers located within these developments provide opportunities for social interaction and community engagement. The presence of diverse activities and populations also contributes to a more resilient and economically diverse community.
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Efficient Land Use and Infrastructure Utilization
This approach maximizes the use of land and existing infrastructure by consolidating multiple uses within a single area. This is particularly important in urban areas where land is scarce and expensive. By integrating different land uses, mixed-use developments can reduce urban sprawl, protect natural resources, and promote compact, walkable communities. Efficient use of infrastructure, such as roads, utilities, and public transportation, also results in cost savings and reduced environmental impact.
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Economic Benefits for Developers and Businesses
Mixed-use projects can offer significant economic benefits for developers and businesses. The combination of residential and commercial uses can increase property values, attract a wider range of tenants and customers, and create more resilient and diversified revenue streams. Retail businesses in mixed-use developments often benefit from increased foot traffic and a built-in customer base. Developers may also benefit from reduced infrastructure costs and streamlined permitting processes in areas that encourage this type of development.
These multiple facets demonstrate its integral role in achieving the goals of reducing car dependency, promoting social interaction, maximizing land use efficiency, and supporting economic development. By integrating diverse land uses, mixed-use developments contribute to the creation of more sustainable, equitable, and vibrant urban environments that meet the diverse needs of residents, businesses, and communities.
3. Diverse Housing
The availability of diverse housing options is a foundational component. The movement actively promotes a range of housing types within a single neighborhood, moving away from the homogenous housing stock typical of conventional suburban development. This diversity encompasses variations in size, type (apartments, townhouses, single-family homes), and affordability. The effect is the creation of communities that can accommodate residents across different stages of life and income levels. Its inclusion within a development pattern directly combats socioeconomic segregation, fostering more inclusive and resilient communities. For example, a development that includes a mix of market-rate apartments, affordable housing units, and larger single-family homes allows young professionals, families, and retirees to reside in the same area. This mix supports local businesses, encourages intergenerational interaction, and contributes to a more vibrant social fabric.
Without diverse housing, the principles of walkability and mixed-use development are less effective. If a neighborhood consists solely of single-family homes, residents are often forced to drive for daily needs, undermining the goal of reducing car dependence. Moreover, this diversity enables developers to respond to changing demographic trends and market demands, creating more adaptable and sustainable communities. Consider the redevelopment of older urban areas, where the introduction of new housing options, like loft apartments or smaller, energy-efficient homes, can revitalize neighborhoods and attract new residents. These initiatives often require zoning reforms and public investment to incentivize developers to include a variety of housing types in their projects.
In summary, this aspect is not merely an aesthetic preference, but rather a critical element for achieving its core goals. By providing housing options that cater to a broad spectrum of residents, it strives to create communities that are more equitable, economically viable, and socially connected. While challenges such as NIMBYism (Not In My Backyard) and restrictive zoning regulations may hinder the implementation of diverse housing initiatives, overcoming these obstacles is essential for realizing the full potential of this movement and creating truly inclusive and sustainable urban environments.
4. Compact design
Compact design is a fundamental principle, central to achieving the goals of environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, and community cohesion. This approach to urban planning emphasizes higher density development, mixed-use zoning, and reduced distances between housing, employment, and services. The principle directly counters suburban sprawl, promoting more efficient land use and reducing reliance on automobiles.
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Reduced Infrastructure Costs
Compact design minimizes the need for extensive infrastructure development, such as roads, utilities, and public transportation networks. By concentrating development in smaller areas, municipalities can reduce the costs associated with providing essential services. For example, a high-density residential area requires fewer miles of water pipes and electrical lines compared to a low-density suburban development spread over a larger area. These cost savings can be redirected to other public services or used to lower taxes, benefiting both residents and local governments.
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Enhanced Walkability and Bikeability
By placing housing, employment, and services in close proximity, compact design fosters walkable and bikeable communities. Shorter distances make it easier for residents to walk or bike for daily errands, reducing reliance on cars. This, in turn, promotes healthier lifestyles, reduces traffic congestion, and lowers greenhouse gas emissions. Pedestrian-friendly streets, bike lanes, and public transportation options further enhance the appeal of these communities, making them more attractive to residents seeking alternatives to car-dependent living.
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Preservation of Open Space and Natural Resources
Compact design helps to preserve open space and natural resources by limiting the geographic footprint of urban development. By building up rather than out, municipalities can protect valuable farmland, forests, and wetlands from development. This not only preserves biodiversity and ecological functions but also provides recreational opportunities for residents and enhances the overall quality of life. Compact development patterns can also reduce the environmental impact of stormwater runoff and other forms of pollution.
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Support for Public Transportation
Higher density development makes public transportation more viable and efficient. Compact communities generate sufficient ridership to support frequent and reliable bus, light rail, and subway service. This reduces reliance on cars, lowers traffic congestion, and improves air quality. Public transportation provides affordable mobility options for residents, particularly those who cannot afford to own a car or who prefer not to drive. Furthermore, it enhances accessibility to jobs, education, and other opportunities, promoting economic equity and social inclusion.
These interconnected facets illustrate that compact design is integral for achieving the core goals, notably, environmental protection, economic efficiency, and community well-being. By adopting compact design principles, urban planners and policymakers can create more sustainable, equitable, and livable communities that address the challenges of urban sprawl and promote a higher quality of life for all residents. Furthermore, successful implementation often necessitates supportive policies, such as zoning reforms, incentives for infill development, and investments in public transportation, to ensure that compact design translates into tangible benefits for communities.
5. Transit-oriented
Transit-oriented development is a critical component, representing a strategic approach to urban planning that concentrates residential, commercial, and recreational development around public transportation hubs. Its integration with the principles of this movement enhances accessibility, reduces car dependence, and promotes sustainable urban growth.
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Reduced Vehicle Miles Traveled
By placing housing and employment centers near transit stations, it directly reduces the need for private vehicles. For example, a development featuring apartments, offices, and retail spaces adjacent to a subway station encourages residents and workers to use public transportation for commuting and daily errands. This reduction in vehicle miles traveled results in lower greenhouse gas emissions, reduced traffic congestion, and improved air quality, aligning with the broader environmental goals.
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Increased Property Values
Proximity to public transportation often increases property values due to enhanced accessibility and reduced transportation costs for residents. Developments near transit stations are attractive to individuals and businesses seeking convenient access to regional destinations. This increased demand can lead to higher rental rates and property values, providing economic benefits for developers and property owners. Furthermore, increased property tax revenues can benefit local governments, providing resources for infrastructure improvements and public services.
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Enhanced Social Equity
Public transportation provides affordable mobility options for low-income residents and those who do not own a car. Developments that prioritize transit accessibility ensure that all residents have access to jobs, education, and other opportunities, regardless of their income level or vehicle ownership status. This promotes social equity and reduces disparities in access to essential services. Furthermore, it can help to revitalize underserved communities by attracting investment and creating new opportunities for residents.
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Support for Compact Development
Transit-oriented strategies support compact, mixed-use development patterns. By concentrating development around transit stations, municipalities can maximize land use efficiency and reduce urban sprawl. Compact development patterns facilitate walking, biking, and public transportation use, creating more sustainable and livable communities. Moreover, compact developments are more efficient in terms of infrastructure provision, reducing the costs associated with extending roads, utilities, and other services to sprawling suburban areas.
The synergistic relationship between these transit-focused strategies and the broader goals directly contributes to the creation of more sustainable, equitable, and economically viable communities. By integrating land use and transportation planning, municipalities can create urban environments that prioritize accessibility, reduce car dependence, and enhance the quality of life for all residents. This strategic approach is essential for addressing the challenges of urban sprawl and promoting a more sustainable future.
6. Public space
Public spaces are integral to this movement, acting as vital catalysts for community interaction, social cohesion, and economic vitality within urban environments. A direct cause-and-effect relationship exists; the design and accessibility of such locations significantly influence the quality of life for residents. These spaces are intentionally designed to foster social interaction and community building. Parks, plazas, squares, and pedestrian-friendly streets encourage people to gather, interact, and participate in community life. Without strategically placed and well-maintained public spaces, the social fabric of a community can weaken, leading to isolation and reduced civic engagement. For example, Bryant Park in New York City, once a neglected space, was redesigned to include amenities such as seating, cafes, and public events, transforming it into a thriving social hub that attracts a diverse range of users.
The strategic placement of public spaces also supports local economies. Active public spaces attract foot traffic, which benefits nearby businesses and creates opportunities for economic development. Outdoor markets, street vendors, and cafes can thrive in vibrant public spaces, providing economic opportunities for entrepreneurs and creating a dynamic streetscape. For example, the redevelopment of Pike Place Market in Seattle preserved a historic public space while also supporting local farmers, artisans, and small businesses. Furthermore, public spaces provide venues for community events, festivals, and performances, attracting visitors and boosting the local economy. From a practical standpoint, municipalities that prioritize the creation and maintenance of public spaces can enhance property values, attract new residents and businesses, and improve the overall quality of life for their communities.
In conclusion, the provision of public spaces is fundamental for fostering social interaction, supporting local economies, and enhancing the overall livability of communities aligned with this movement. Challenges such as funding constraints, competing land uses, and concerns about public safety can hinder the creation and maintenance of public spaces. Nevertheless, overcoming these obstacles is essential for realizing the full potential and creating truly vibrant and resilient urban environments. The understanding of the importance of public spaces allows urban planners to promote social connection and environmental balance within a community.
7. Community Focus
The concept of “community focus” is inextricably linked, serving as a core driver and overarching goal. It moves beyond mere physical design to prioritize social connections, local identity, and the creation of vibrant, inclusive neighborhoods. This emphasis shapes planning decisions, influencing everything from street layouts to the provision of public amenities.
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Social Interaction and Gathering Spaces
This planning approach emphasizes the creation of spaces that encourage interaction and foster a sense of belonging. Parks, plazas, community centers, and pedestrian-friendly streets are designed to provide opportunities for residents to meet, socialize, and participate in community activities. Celebration, Florida, a planned community often associated with the movement, exemplifies this through its town center designed to host events and gatherings, fostering a strong community identity. The implication is a reduction in social isolation and increased civic engagement among residents.
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Local Identity and Place-Making
It seeks to create unique places that reflect the history, culture, and character of the surrounding area. This involves preserving historic buildings, incorporating local materials and architectural styles, and celebrating local traditions. For example, the revitalization of historic downtowns, often associated with New Urbanist principles, aims to preserve the architectural heritage of the area while creating a vibrant, mixed-use district that attracts residents and visitors. The implication is the reinforcement of community pride and a sense of place, differentiating neighborhoods from generic suburban developments.
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Inclusivity and Social Equity
It strives to create communities that are inclusive and accessible to people of all ages, incomes, and backgrounds. This involves providing a range of housing options, ensuring access to public transportation, and designing public spaces that are welcoming to all. The inclusion of affordable housing units within market-rate developments, a common feature in projects influenced by its principles, aims to promote social equity and reduce segregation. The implication is a more diverse and socially cohesive community, mitigating the negative effects of concentrated poverty and social isolation.
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Community Engagement in Planning and Design
It emphasizes community participation in the planning and design process. Residents are actively involved in shaping the future of their neighborhoods, providing input on everything from street layouts to the design of public spaces. Community workshops, surveys, and public hearings are used to gather feedback and ensure that development projects reflect the needs and preferences of the community. The implication is increased community ownership and support for development projects, reducing the likelihood of opposition and fostering a sense of collaboration between residents and developers.
These facets highlight the significance of “community focus” in shaping development aligned with the precepts. By prioritizing social interaction, local identity, inclusivity, and community engagement, this movement seeks to create neighborhoods that are not only physically attractive but also socially vibrant and resilient. This focus directly addresses the perceived shortcomings of conventional suburban development, which often prioritizes individual needs over collective well-being.
8. Sustainability
Sustainability, in the context of urban planning, addresses the long-term environmental, economic, and social well-being of communities. Its principles are deeply intertwined with the tenets of new urbanism, guiding the development of environments that minimize ecological impact while enhancing the quality of life for residents.
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Reduced Carbon Footprint
New urbanist developments prioritize walkability and access to public transportation, directly reducing reliance on private vehicles. This reduction leads to lower greenhouse gas emissions, mitigating the impacts of climate change. For instance, mixed-use zoning allows residents to live, work, and shop within the same area, minimizing the need for driving. This contrasts sharply with conventional suburban sprawl, which often necessitates automobile use for daily activities, resulting in significantly higher carbon emissions.
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Efficient Resource Use
Compact design, a hallmark of new urbanism, promotes efficient use of land, water, and energy resources. Higher density development reduces the per capita consumption of these resources compared to low-density suburban sprawl. Furthermore, integrating green building practices and promoting water conservation measures within new urbanist developments can further minimize environmental impact. An example includes incorporating rainwater harvesting systems and using energy-efficient building materials to reduce the ecological footprint of buildings.
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Preservation of Natural Habitats
By focusing on infill development and redevelopment of existing urban areas, it helps to protect natural habitats and open spaces. Limiting urban sprawl preserves biodiversity, protects valuable ecosystems, and provides recreational opportunities for residents. This contrasts with the conventional suburban development model, which often encroaches upon natural landscapes, fragmenting habitats and disrupting ecological processes. Preservation efforts can include creating green corridors and protecting sensitive areas within and around urban developments.
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Social Equity and Resilience
Sustainable communities must address social equity and promote resilience to environmental and economic shocks. Prioritizing affordable housing, access to public transportation, and community engagement can create more inclusive and resilient communities. For example, mixed-income developments can help to reduce social segregation and provide opportunities for residents from different backgrounds to interact and build social capital. Furthermore, creating walkable, mixed-use neighborhoods can enhance community resilience by providing residents with access to essential services and amenities during times of crisis.
These elements collectively illustrate the crucial role sustainability plays in the broader application. By integrating environmental, economic, and social considerations into urban planning decisions, it offers a pathway toward creating more livable, equitable, and resilient communities that can thrive in the face of future challenges. Its focus on sustainability ensures developments not only meet the needs of the present but also safeguard resources for future generations.
9. Reduced sprawl
The reduction of urban sprawl is a core objective and a defining characteristic. This focus stems from a recognition of the detrimental environmental, social, and economic impacts associated with low-density, car-dependent suburban development. Sprawl’s consequences include increased vehicle emissions, loss of farmland and natural habitats, social isolation, and higher infrastructure costs.
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Compact Development Patterns
It actively promotes compact, mixed-use development patterns as an alternative to sprawling suburban landscapes. This involves encouraging higher density housing, clustering development around transit hubs, and integrating residential, commercial, and civic uses within the same area. By concentrating development in smaller areas, sprawl is curbed, and land is used more efficiently. For example, instead of building single-family homes on large lots that require extensive infrastructure, developers construct townhouses or apartments near public transportation, minimizing the need for private vehicles and preserving open space.
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Mixed-Use Zoning
The strict separation of land uses, a hallmark of conventional zoning practices, contributes to sprawl by requiring residents to drive long distances for work, shopping, and recreation. Mixed-use zoning, on the other hand, allows for the integration of different land uses within the same area, creating more walkable and self-sufficient communities. An example would be a neighborhood with a mix of apartments, shops, offices, and restaurants, allowing residents to live, work, and play without relying on automobiles. This reduces traffic congestion, lowers greenhouse gas emissions, and fosters a greater sense of community.
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Transportation Alternatives
Sprawl is closely linked to car dependency, as residents in sprawling suburban areas often have limited access to public transportation and other alternative modes of transportation. It prioritizes the development of walkable and bikeable communities, providing residents with safe and convenient alternatives to driving. This involves constructing sidewalks, bike lanes, and trails, as well as investing in public transportation infrastructure. For example, a city that expands its light rail system and encourages transit-oriented development around its stations can reduce sprawl and provide residents with more transportation options.
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Infill Development
Rather than expanding outward into undeveloped areas, it encourages infill development and redevelopment of existing urban areas. This involves revitalizing underutilized or abandoned properties, converting vacant lots into housing or parks, and redeveloping brownfield sites. Infill development helps to reduce sprawl by making better use of existing infrastructure and preserving open space. An example would be the redevelopment of a former industrial site into a mixed-use residential and commercial district, transforming a blighted area into a vibrant part of the community.
The concerted efforts to curb sprawl are a defining characteristic, addressing the environmental, social, and economic challenges associated with low-density, car-dependent development patterns. By promoting compact development, mixed-use zoning, transportation alternatives, and infill development, this concept offers a more sustainable and equitable approach to urban planning. These strategies aim to create communities that are more livable, walkable, and environmentally responsible, offering a viable alternative to the sprawling suburban landscapes that have dominated urban development for much of the 20th century.
Frequently Asked Questions
This section addresses common inquiries regarding the defining characteristics of this urban planning approach.
Question 1: What are the core tenets that distinguish a neighborhood planned under the principles from conventional suburban development?
The distinguishing characteristics include walkability, mixed-use zoning, diverse housing options, compact design, and a focus on public spaces. Conventional suburban development often prioritizes single-use zoning and car dependency, features actively countered by its principles.
Question 2: How does mixed-use development contribute to the goals of this movement?
Mixed-use development integrates residential, commercial, and civic uses within the same area. This integration reduces transportation demand, fosters social interaction, and promotes efficient land use, directly supporting the goals.
Question 3: What role does public transportation play in communities adhering to its principles?
Public transportation is a key element, with developments often designed to be transit-oriented. This reduces reliance on private vehicles, lowers traffic congestion, and improves air quality. Moreover, it provides affordable mobility options for residents.
Question 4: Why is diverse housing considered essential within this urban framework?
Diverse housing promotes social equity and economic inclusion by providing housing options for people of different ages, incomes, and backgrounds. It helps to create more balanced and resilient communities.
Question 5: How does the principle of “compact design” differ from conventional suburban planning?
Compact design emphasizes higher density development and efficient land use, contrasting with the low-density, sprawling development patterns typically associated with conventional suburban planning. This approach helps to preserve open space and natural resources.
Question 6: What is the significance of public spaces within this planning paradigm?
Public spaces such as parks, plazas, and community centers are vital for fostering social interaction, promoting community identity, and supporting local economies. These spaces contribute to the overall quality of life for residents.
In summary, it represents a holistic approach to urban planning that prioritizes environmental sustainability, social equity, and community well-being. Understanding these principles is essential for analyzing contemporary urban landscapes and evaluating the effectiveness of different development strategies.
The next section will explore criticisms and limitations associated with its implementation.
Effective Engagement With the Concept
These guidelines offer targeted advice for understanding and applying the principles in an academic context, particularly within the scope of AP Human Geography.
Tip 1: Understand the Definitional Nuances: Avoid oversimplification. Recognize that it encompasses more than just building walkable neighborhoods. Delve into its theoretical underpinnings, contrasting it with traditional suburban planning and modernist urbanism. Understand the historical context of its emergence as a response to perceived failures of prior planning models.
Tip 2: Memorize Key Vocabulary: A firm grasp of terms like ‘mixed-use development,’ ‘transit-oriented design,’ ‘walkability,’ and ‘compact design’ is essential. Be prepared to define and differentiate these terms, providing real-world examples to illustrate their practical application. Avoid vague generalizations; specificity enhances understanding.
Tip 3: Analyze Case Studies: Do not merely describe exemplary developments; critically assess their successes and shortcomings. Investigate how these projects address issues of social equity, environmental impact, and economic sustainability. Identify potential trade-offs and unintended consequences.
Tip 4: Examine the Socioeconomic Implications: Recognize that it is not a panacea. Critically evaluate its potential to exacerbate existing inequalities or create new forms of exclusion. Investigate the impact of these development projects on housing affordability, displacement, and access to essential services for different social groups.
Tip 5: Consider the Environmental Impacts: While proponents often tout its environmental benefits, a nuanced understanding is crucial. Evaluate the life-cycle impacts of development, considering factors such as construction materials, energy consumption, and transportation patterns. Assess its effectiveness in mitigating climate change and promoting ecological sustainability.
Tip 6: Understand the Critiques: Recognize that it is subject to criticism. Be prepared to discuss arguments related to architectural homogeneity, social engineering, and the potential for gentrification. Investigate alternative planning models and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses relative to its approach.
Adhering to these tips facilitates a deeper and more nuanced understanding of this movement, enabling effective application within the framework of AP Human Geography. It is not merely a design aesthetic but a complex and contested approach to urban planning with significant social, economic, and environmental implications.
This guidance sets the stage for a more comprehensive exploration of its criticisms and limitations.
Conclusion
This exploration of the term, “new urbanism definition ap human geography”, has illuminated the core principles of an urban planning movement focused on creating walkable, mixed-use, and transit-oriented communities. The movement’s emphasis on sustainability, social equity, and community engagement aims to address the challenges of urban sprawl and car dependency prevalent in contemporary landscapes. Analysis of key tenets such as mixed-use development, diverse housing options, and compact design has provided a comprehensive understanding of the strategies employed to achieve these goals.
The understanding of its complexities and nuances is crucial for evaluating its impact on human populations and the environment. As urban areas continue to evolve, its principles offer a framework for creating more sustainable, equitable, and livable communities. Further research and critical assessment of its implementation are essential to inform future urban planning initiatives and address the challenges of a rapidly urbanizing world.
